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- ItemOptical Spectrometry to Determine Nutrient Concentrations and other Physicochemical Parameters in Liquid Organic Manures: A Review(Basel : MDPI, 2022) Horf, Michael; Vogel, Sebastian; Drücker, Harm; Gebbers, Robin; Olfs, Hans-WernerNutrient concentrations in livestock manures and biogas digestates show a huge variability due to disparities in animal husbandry systems concerning animal species, feed composition, etc. Therefore, a nutrient estimation based on recommendation tables is not reliable when the exact chemical composition is needed. The alternative, to analyse representative fertilizer samples in a standard laboratory, is too time-and cost-intensive to be an accepted routine method for farmers. However, precise knowledge about the actual nutrient concentrations in liquid organic fertilizers is a prerequisite to ensure optimal nutrient supply for growing crops and on the other hand to avoid environmental problems caused by overfertilization. Therefore, spectrometric methods receive increasing attention as fast and low-cost alternatives. This review summarizes the present state of research based on optical spectrometry used at laboratory and field scale for predicting several parameters of liquid organic manures. It emphasizes three categories: (1) physicochemical parameters, e.g., dry matter, pH, and electrical conductivity; (2) main plant nutrients, i.e., total nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and sulfur; and (3) micronutrients, i.e., manganese, iron, copper, and zinc. Furthermore, the commonly used sample preparation techniques, spectrometer types, measuring modes, and chemometric methods are presented. The primarily promising scientific results of the last 30 years contributed to the fact that near-infrared spectrometry (NIRS) was established in commercial laboratories as an alternative method to wet chemical standard methods. Furthermore, companies developed technical setups using NIRS for on-line applications of liquid organic manures. Thus, NIRS seems to have evolved to a competitive measurement procedure, although parts of this technique still need to be improved to ensure sufficient accuracy, especially in quality management.
- ItemTerahertz spectroscopy for proximal soil sensing: An approach to particle size analysis(Basel : MDPI, 2017) Dworak, Volker; Mahns, Benjamin; Selbeck, Jörn; Gebbers, Robin; Weltzien, CorneliaSpatially resolved soil parameters are some of the most important pieces of information for precision agriculture. These parameters, especially the particle size distribution (texture), are costly to measure by conventional laboratory methods, and thus, in situ assessment has become the focus of a new discipline called proximal soil sensing. Terahertz (THz) radiation is a promising method for nondestructive in situ measurements. The THz frequency range from 258 gigahertz (GHz) to 350 GHz provides a good compromise between soil penetration and the interaction of the electromagnetic waves with soil compounds. In particular, soil physical parameters influence THz measurements. This paper presents investigations of the spectral transmission signals from samples of different particle size fractions relevant for soil characterization. The sample thickness ranged from 5 to 17 mm. The transmission of THz waves was affected by the main mineral particle fractions, sand, silt and clay. The resulting signal changes systematically according to particle sizes larger than half the wavelength. It can be concluded that THz spectroscopic measurements provide information about soil texture and penetrate samples with thicknesses in the cm range.
- ItemApplication of Terahertz radiation to soil measurements: Initial results(Basel : MDPI, 2011) Dworak, Volker; Augustin, Sven; Gebbers, RobinDeveloping soil sensors with the possibility of continuous online measurement is a major challenge in soil science. Terahertz (THz) electromagnetic radiation may provide the opportunity for the measurement of organic material density, water content and other soil parameters at different soil depths. Penetration depth and information content is important for a functional soil sensor. Therefore, we present initial research on the analysis of absorption coefficients of four different soil samples by means of THz transmission measurements. An optimized soil sample holder to determine absorption coefficients was used. This setup improves data acquisition because interface reflections can be neglected. Frequencies of 340 GHz to 360 GHz and 1.627 THz to 2.523 THz provided information about an existing frequency dependency. The results demonstrate the potential of this THz approach for both soil analysis and imaging of buried objects. Therefore, the THz approach allows different soil samples to be distinguished according to their different absorption properties so that relations among soil parameters may be established in future.
- ItemSoil pH mapping with an on-the-go sensor(Basel : MDPI, 2011) Schirrmann, Michael; Gebbers, Robin; Kramer, Eckart; Seidel, JanSoil pH is a key parameter for crop productivity, therefore, its spatial variation should be adequately addressed to improve precision management decisions. Recently, the Veris pH ManagerTM, a sensor for high-resolution mapping of soil pH at the field scale, has been made commercially available in the US. While driving over the field, soil pH is measured on-the-go directly within the soil by ion selective antimony electrodes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the Veris pH ManagerTM under farming conditions in Germany. Sensor readings were compared with data obtained by standard protocols of soil pH assessment. Experiments took place under different scenarios: (a) controlled tests in the lab, (b) semicontrolled test on transects in a stop-and-go mode, and (c) tests under practical conditions in the field with the sensor working in its typical on-the-go mode. Accuracy issues, problems, options, and potential benefits of the Veris pH ManagerTM were addressed. The tests demonstrated a high degree of linearity between standard laboratory values and sensor readings. Under practical conditions in the field (scenario c), the measure of fit (r2) for the regression between the on-the-go measurements and the reference data was 0.71, 0.63, and 0.84, respectively. Field-specific calibration was necessary to reduce systematic errors. Accuracy of the on-the-go maps was considerably higher compared with the pH maps obtained by following the standard protocols, and the error in calculating lime requirements was reduced by about one half. However, the system showed some weaknesses due to blockage by residual straw and weed roots. If these problems were solved, the on-the-go sensor investigated here could be an efficient alternative to standard sampling protocols as a basis for liming in Germany.
- ItemVertical soil profiling using a galvanic contact resistivity scanning approach(Basel : MDPI, 2014) Pan, Luan; Adamchuk, Viacheslav I.; Prasher, Shiv; Gebbers, Robin; Taylor, Richard S.; Dabas, MichelProximal sensing of soil electromagnetic properties is widely used to map spatial land heterogeneity. The mapping instruments use galvanic contact, capacitive coupling or electromagnetic induction. Regardless of the type of instrument, the geometrical configuration between signal transmitting and receiving elements typically defines the shape of the depth response function. To assess vertical soil profiles, many modern instruments use multiple transmitter-receiver pairs. Alternatively, vertical electrical sounding can be used to measure changes in apparent soil electrical conductivity with depth at a specific location. This paper examines the possibility for the assessment of soil profiles using a dynamic surface galvanic contact resistivity scanning approach, with transmitting and receiving electrodes configured in an equatorial dipole-dipole array. An automated scanner system was developed and tested in agricultural fields with different soil profiles. While operating in the field, the distance between current injecting and measuring pairs of rolling electrodes was varied continuously from 40 to 190 cm. The preliminary evaluation included a comparison of scan results from 20 locations to shallow (less than 1.2 m deep) soil profiles and to a two-layer soil profile model defined using an electromagnetic induction instrument.
- ItemHyperspectral Imaging Tera Hertz System for Soil Analysis : Initial Results(Basel : MDPI, 2020) Dworak, Volker; Mahns, Benjamin; Selbeck, Jörn; Gebbers, Robin; Weltzien, CorneliaAnalyzing soils using conventional methods is often time consuming and costly due to their complexity. These methods require soil sampling (e.g., by augering), pretreatment of samples (e.g., sieving, extraction), and wet chemical analysis in the laboratory. Researchers are seeking alternative sensor-based methods that can provide immediate results with little or no excavation and pretreatment of samples. Currently, visible and infrared spectroscopy, electrical resistivity, gamma ray spectroscopy, and X-ray spectroscopy have been investigated extensively for their potential utility in soil sensing. Little research has been conducted on the application of THz (Tera Hertz) spectroscopy in soil science. The Tera Hertz band covers the frequency range between 100 GHz and 10 THz of the electromagnetic spectrum. One important feature of THz radiation is its correspondence with the particle size of the fine fraction of soil minerals (clay < 2 µm to sand < 2 mm). The particle size distribution is a fundamental soil property that governs soil water and nutrient content, among other characteristics. The interaction of THz radiation with soil particles creates detectable Mie scattering, which is the elastic scattering of electromagnetic waves by particles whose diameter corresponds approximately to the wavelength of the radiation. However, single-spot Mie scattering spectra are difficult to analyze and the understanding of interaction between THz radiation and soil material requires basic research. To improve the interpretation of THz spectra, a hyperspectral imaging system was developed. The addition of the spatial dimension to THz spectra helps to detect relevant features. Additionally, multiple samples can be scanned in parallel and measured under identical conditions, and the high number of data points within an image can improve the statistical accuracy. Technical details of the newly designed hyperspectral imaging THz system working from 250 to 370 GHz are provided. Results from measurements of different soil samples and buried objects in soil demonstrated its performance. The system achieved an optical resolution of about 2 mm. The sensitivity of signal damping to the changes in particle size of 100 µm is about 10 dB. Therefore, particle size variations in the µm range should be detectable. In conclusion, automated hyperspectral imaging reduced experimental effort and time consumption, and provided reliable results because of the measurement of hundreds of sample positions in one run. At this stage, the proposed setup cannot replace the current standard laboratory methods, but the present study represents the initial step to develop a new automated method for soil analysis and imaging.
- ItemComparison of Calibration Approaches in Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy for Proximal Soil Sensing in Precision Agriculture(Basel : MDPI, 2019) Riebe, Daniel; Erler, Alexander; Brinkmann, Pia; Beitz, Toralf; Löhmannsröben, Hans-Gerd; Gebbers, RobinThe lack of soil data, which are relevant, reliable, affordable, immediately available, and sufficiently detailed, is still a significant challenge in precision agriculture. A promising technology for the spatial assessment of the distribution of chemical elements within fields, without sample preparation is laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). Its advantages are contrasted by a strong matrix dependence of the LIBS signal which necessitates careful data evaluation. In this work, different calibration approaches for soil LIBS data are presented. The data were obtained from 139 soil samples collected on two neighboring agricultural fields in a quaternary landscape of northeast Germany with very variable soils. Reference analysis was carried out by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy after wet digestion. The major nutrients Ca and Mg and the minor nutrient Fe were investigated. Three calibration strategies were compared. The first method was based on univariate calibration by standard addition using just one soil sample and applying the derived calibration model to the LIBS data of both fields. The second univariate model derived the calibration from the reference analytics of all samples from one field. The prediction is validated by LIBS data of the second field. The third method is a multivariate calibration approach based on partial least squares regression (PLSR). The LIBS spectra of the first field are used for training. Validation was carried out by 20-fold cross-validation using the LIBS data of the first field and independently on the second field data. The second univariate method yielded better calibration and prediction results compared to the first method, since matrix effects were better accounted for. PLSR did not strongly improve the prediction in comparison to the second univariate method.
- ItemSoil Nutrient Detection for Precision Agriculture Using Handheld Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) and Multivariate Regression Methods (PLSR, Lasso and GPR)(Basel : MDPI, 2020) Erler, Alexander; Riebe, Daniel; Beitz, Toralf; Löhmannsröben, Hans-Gerd; Gebbers, RobinPrecision agriculture (PA) strongly relies on spatially differentiated sensor information. Handheld instruments based on laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) are a promising sensor technique for the in-field determination of various soil parameters. In this work, the potential of handheld LIBS for the determination of the total mass fractions of the major nutrients Ca, K, Mg, N, P and the trace nutrients Mn, Fe was evaluated. Additionally, other soil parameters, such as humus content, soil pH value and plant available P content, were determined. Since the quantification of nutrients by LIBS depends strongly on the soil matrix, various multivariate regression methods were used for calibration and prediction. These include partial least squares regression (PLSR), least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression (Lasso), and Gaussian process regression (GPR). The best prediction results were obtained for Ca, K, Mg and Fe. The coefficients of determination obtained for other nutrients were smaller. This is due to much lower concentrations in the case of Mn, while the low number of lines and very weak intensities are the reason for the deviation of N and P. Soil parameters that are not directly related to one element, such as pH, could also be predicted. Lasso and GPR yielded slightly better results than PLSR. Additionally, several methods of data pretreatment were investigated.