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Regional Saharan dust modelling during the SAMUM 2006 campaign
The regional dust model system LM-MUSCAT-DES was developed in the framework of the SAMUM project. Using the unique comprehensive data set of near-source dust properties during the 2006SAMUMfield campaign, the performance of the model system is evaluated for two time periods in May and June 2006. Dust optical thicknesses, number size distributions and the position of the maximum dust extinction in the vertical profiles agree well with the observations. However, the spatio-temporal evolution of the dust plumes is not always reproduced due to inaccuracies in the dust source placement by the model. While simulated winds and dust distributions are well matched for dust events caused by dry synoptic-scale dynamics, they are often misrepresented when dust emissions are caused by moist convection or influenced by small-scale topography that is not resolved by the model. In contrast to long-range dust transport, in the vicinity of source regions the model performance strongly depends on the correct prediction of the exact location of sources. Insufficiently resolved vertical grid spacing causes the absence of inversions in the model vertical profiles and likely explains the absence of the observed sharply defined dust layers.
Aerosol number to volume ratios in Southwest Portugal during ACE-2
Past studies have indicated that long-term averages of the aerosol number to volume ratios (defined as the number of particles larger than a certain diameter divided by the particle volume over some range less than 1 μm) show little variability over the Atlantic. This work presents number to volume ratios (R) measured during the ACE-2 experiment on the land-based Sagres field site located in Southwest Portugal. The values of R measured in Sagres compare reasonably well with previous measurements over the Atlantic. The main emphasis of this work is therefore to investigate more closely possible reasons for the observed stability of the number to volume ratio. Aerosol number size distributions measured in Sagres are parametrized by the sum of two log-normal distributions fitted to the accumulation and to the Aitken mode. The main factor that limits the variability of R is that the parameters of these log-normal distributions are not always independent but show some covariance. In polluted air mass types correlations between parameters of the Aitken and accumulation mode are mostly responsible for stabilizing R. In marine air mass types the variability of R is reduced by an inverse relationship between the accumulation-mode mean diameter and standard deviation, consistent with condensational processes and cloud processing working on the aerosol. However, despite this reduction, the variability of R in marine air mass types is still considerable and R is linearly dependent on the number concentration of particles larger than 90 nm. This partly due to a mil of Aitken-mode particles extending to sizes larger than 90 nm.
Numerical simulations of optical properties of Saharan dust aerosols with emphasis on lidar applications
In the framework of the Saharan Mineral Dust Experiment (SAMUM) for the first time the spectral dependence of particle linear depolarization ratios was measured by combining four lidar systems. In this paper these measurements are compared with results from scattering theory based on the T-matrix method. For this purpose, in situ measurements—size distribution, shape distribution and refractive index—were used as input parameters; particle shape was approximated by spheroids. A sensitivity study showed that lidar-related parameters—lidar ratio Sp and linear depolarization ratio δp—are very sensitive to changes of all parameters. The simulated values of the δp are in the range of 20% and 31% and thus in the range of the measurements. The spectral dependence is weak, so that it could not be resolved by the measurements. Calculated lidar ratios based on the measured microphysics and considering equivalent radii up to 7.5μm show a range of possible values between 29 and 50 sr at λ = 532 nm. Larger Sp might be possible if the real part of the refractive index is small and the imaginary part is large. A strict validation was however not possible as too many microphysical parameters influence Sp and δp that could not be measured with the required accuracy.
Number size distributions and seasonality of submicron particles in Europe 2008–2009
Two years of harmonized aerosol number size distribution data from 24 European field monitoring sites have been analysed. The results give a comprehensive overview of the European near surface aerosol particle number concentrations and number size distributions between 30 and 500 nm of dry particle diameter. Spatial and temporal distribution of aerosols in the particle sizes most important for climate applications are presented. We also analyse the annual, weekly and diurnal cycles of the aerosol number concentrations, provide log-normal fitting parameters for median number size distributions, and give guidance notes for data users. Emphasis is placed on the usability of results within the aerosol modelling community. We also show that the aerosol number concentrations of Aitken and accumulation mode particles (with 100 nm dry diameter as a cut-off between modes) are related, although there is significant variation in the ratios of the modal number concentrations. Different aerosol and station types are distinguished from this data and this methodology has potential for further categorization of stations aerosol number size distribution types. The European submicron aerosol was divided into characteristic types: Central European aerosol, characterized by single mode median size distributions, unimodal number concentration histograms and low variability in CCN-sized aerosol number concentrations; Nordic aerosol with low number concentrations, although showing pronounced seasonal variation of especially Aitken mode particles; Mountain sites (altitude over 1000 m a.s.l.) with a strong seasonal cycle in aerosol number concentrations, high variability, and very low median number concentrations. Southern and Western European regions had fewer stations, which decreases the regional coverage of these results. Aerosol number concentrations over the Britain and Ireland had very high variance and there are indications of mixed air masses from several source regions; the Mediterranean aerosol exhibit high seasonality, and a strong accumulation mode in the summer. The greatest concentrations were observed at the Ispra station in Northern Italy with high accumulation mode number concentrations in the winter. The aerosol number concentrations at the Arctic station Zeppelin in Ny-\AA lesund in Svalbard have also a strong seasonal cycle, with greater concentrations of accumulation mode particles in winter, and dominating summer Aitken mode indicating more recently formed particles. Observed particles did not show any statistically significant regional work-week or weekday related variation in number concentrations studied. Analysis products are made for open-access to the research community, available in a freely accessible internet site. The results give to the modelling community a reliable, easy-to-use and freely available comparison dataset of aerosol size distributions.
Aerosol number-size distributions during clear and fog periods in the summer high Arctic: 1991, 1996 and 2001
The present study covers submicrometer aerosol size distribution data taken during three Arctic icebreaker expeditions in the summers of 1991, 1996 and 2001. The size distributions of all expeditions were compared in log-normally fitted form to the statistics of the marine number size distribution provided by Heintzenberg et al. (2004) yielding rather similar log-normal parameters of the modes. Statistics of the modal concentrations revealed strong concentration decreases of large accumulation mode particles with increasing length of time spent over the pack ice. The travel-time dependencies of both Aitken and ultrafine modes strongly indicate, as other studies did before, the occurrence of fine-particle sources in the inner Arctic. With two approaches evidence of fog-related aerosol source processeswas sought for in the data sets of 1996 and 2001 because they included fog drop size distributions. With increasing fog intensity modes in interstitial particle number concentrations appeared in particular in the size range around 80 nm that was nearly mode free in clear air. A second, dynamic approach revealed that Aitken mode concentrations increased strongly above their respective fog-period medians in both years before maximum drop numbers were reached in both years. We interpret the results of both approaches as strong indications of fog-related aerosol source processes as discussed in Leck and Bigg (1999) that need to be elucidated with further data from dedicated fog experiments in future Arctic expeditions in order to understand the life cycle of the aerosol over the high Arctic pack ice area.
Saharan Mineral Dust Experiments SAMUM-1 and SAMUM-2: What have we learned?
Two comprehensive field campaigns were conducted in 2006 and 2008 in the framework of the Saharan Mineral Dust Experiment (SAMUM) project. The relationship between chemical composition, shape morphology, size distribution and optical effects of the dust particles was investigated. The impact of Saharan dust on radiative transfer and the feedback of radiative effects upon dust emission and aerosol transport were studied. Field observations (ground-based, airborne and remote sensing) and modelling results were compared within a variety of dust closure experiments with a strong focus on vertical profiling. For the first time, multiwavelength Raman/polarization lidars and an airborne high spectral resolution lidar were involved in major dust field campaigns and provided profiles of the volume extinction coefficient of the particles at ambient conditions (for the full dust size distribution), of particle-shape-sensitive optical properties at several wavelengths, and a clear separation of dust and smoke profiles allowing for an estimation of the single-scattering albedo of the biomass-burning aerosol. SAMUM–1 took place in southern Morocco close to the Saharan desert in the summer of 2006, whereas SAMUM–2 was conducted in Cape Verde in the outflow region of desert dust and biomass-burning smoke from western Africa in the winter of 2008. This paper gives an overview of the SAMUM concept, strategy and goals, provides snapshots (highlights) of SAMUM–2 observations and modelling efforts, summarizes main findings of SAMUM–1 and SAMUM–2 and finally presents a list of remaining problems and unsolved questions.
Vertical profiling of convective dust plumes in southern Morocco during SAMUM
Lifting of dust particles by dust devils and convective plumes may significantly contribute to the global mineral dust budget. During the Saharan Mineral Dust Experiment (SAMUM) in May–June 2006 vertical profiling of dusty plumes was performed for the first time. Polarization lidar observations taken at Ouarzazate (30.9◦N, 6.9◦W, 1133 m height above sea level) are analyzed. Two cases with typical and vigorous formation of convective plumes and statistical results of 5 d are discussed. The majority of observed convective plumes have diameters on order of 100–400 m. Most of the plumes (typically 50–95%) show top heights <1 km or 0.3DLH with the Saharan dust layer height DLH of typically 3–4 km. Height-to-diameter ratio is mostly 2–10. Maximum plume top height ranges from 1.1 to 2.9 km on the 5 d. 5–26 isolated plumes and clusters of plumes per hour were detected. A low dust optical depth (<0.3) favours plume evolution. Observed surface, 1 and 2–m air temperatures indicate that a difference of 17–20 K between surface and 2-m air temperature and of 0.9–1 K between the 1 and 2-m temperatures are required before convective plumes develop. Favourable horizontal wind speeds are 2–7 ms−1.
Spectral aerosol optical depth characterization of desert dust during SAMUM 2006
The aerosol optical depth (AOD) in the range 340–1550 nm was monitored at Ouarzazate (Morocco) during the Saharan Mineral Dust Experiment (SAMUM) experiment in May–June 2006. Two different sun photometers were used for this purpose. The mean AOD at 500 nm was 0.28, with a maximum of 0.83, and the mean Ångstr¨om exponent (AE) was 0.35. The aerosol content over the site changed alternatively from very low turbidity, associated to Atlantic air masses, to moderate dust load, associated to air masses arriving in the site from Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. The dusty conditions were predominant in the measurement period (78% of data), with AOD (500 nm) above 0.15 and AE below 0.4. The spectral features of the AOD under dusty conditions are discussed. Air mass back trajectory analysis is carried out to investigate the origin and height patterns of the dust loaded air masses. The advection of dust occurred mainly at atmospheric heights below 3000 m, where east flow is the predominant. At the 5000m level, the air masses originate mainly over the Atlantic Ocean. Finally the Optical Properties of Aerosols and Clouds (OPAC) model is used to perform a set of simulations with different aerosol mixtures to illustrate the measured AOD and AE values under varying dust concentrations, and a brief comparison with other measurement sites is presented.
In situ aerosol characterization at Cape Verde, Part 1: Particle number size distributions, hygroscopic growth and state of mixing of the marine and Saharan dust aerosol
Particle number size distributions and hygroscopic properties of marine and Saharan dust aerosol were investigated during the SAMUM-2 field study at Cape Verde in winter 2008. Aitken and accumulation mode particles were mainly assigned to the marine aerosol, whereas coarse mode particles were composed of sea-salt and a variable fraction of Saharan mineral dust. A new methodical approach was used to derive hygroscopic growth and state of mixing for a particle size range (volume equivalent) from dpve = 26 nm to 10 μm. For hygroscopic particles with dpve < 100 nm, the median hygroscopicity parameter κ is 0.35. From 100 nm < dpve < 350 nm, κ increases to 0.65. For larger particles, κ at dpve = 350 nm was used. For nearly hydrophobic particles, κ is between 0 and 0.1 for dpve < 250 nm and decreases to 0 for dpve > 250 nm. The mixing state of Saharan dust in terms of the number fraction of nearly hydrophobic particles showed the highest variation and ranges from 0.3 to almost 1. This study was used to perform a successful mass closure at ambient conditions and demonstrates the important role of hygroscopic growth of large sea-salt particles.
Structure, variability and persistence of the submicrometre marine aerosol
Submicrometre dry number size distributions from four marine and one continental aerosol experiment were evaluatedjointly in the present study. In the marine experiments only data with back trajectories of at least 120 h without landcontact were used to minimize continental contamination. Log-normal functions were fitted to the size distributions.Basic statistics of the marine aerosol indicate a closed character of the size distribution at the lower size limit as opposedto an open character for corresponding continental data. Together with the infrequent occurrences of marine particlesbelow20 nmthis finding supports hypotheses and model results suggesting lowprobabilities of homogeneous nucleationin the marine boundary layer. The variability of submicrometre marine number concentrations was parametrized witha bimodal log-normal function that quantifies the probability of finding different number concentrations about a givenmedian value. Together with a four-modal log-normal approximation of the submicrometre marine size distributionitself, this model allows a statistical representation of the marine aerosol that facilitates comparison of experiments andvalidation of aerosol models. Autocorrelation at the one fixed marine site with a minimum of interruptions in timesseriesrevealed a strong size dependency of persistence in particle number concentration with the shortest persistenceat the smallest sizes. Interestingly, in the marine aerosol (at Cape Grim) persistence exhibits a size dependency thatlargely matches the modes in dg0, i.e. near the most frequent geometric mean diameters number concentrations aremost persistent. Over the continent, persistence of particle numbers is strongly constrained by diurnal meteorologicalprocesses and aerosol dynamics. Thus, no strong modal structure appears in the size-dependent persistence at Melpitz.As with the aerosol variability, marine aerosol processes in models of aerosol dynamics can be tested with these findings.