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- ItemEarly Detection of Stripe Rust in Winter Wheat Using Deep Residual Neural Networks(Lausanne : Frontiers Media, 2021) Schirrmann, Michael; Landwehr, Niels; Giebel, Antje; Garz, Andreas; Dammer, Karl-HeinzStripe rust (Pst) is a major disease of wheat crops leading untreated to severe yield losses. The use of fungicides is often essential to control Pst when sudden outbreaks are imminent. Sensors capable of detecting Pst in wheat crops could optimize the use of fungicides and improve disease monitoring in high-throughput field phenotyping. Now, deep learning provides new tools for image recognition and may pave the way for new camera based sensors that can identify symptoms in early stages of a disease outbreak within the field. The aim of this study was to teach an image classifier to detect Pst symptoms in winter wheat canopies based on a deep residual neural network (ResNet). For this purpose, a large annotation database was created from images taken by a standard RGB camera that was mounted on a platform at a height of 2 m. Images were acquired while the platform was moved over a randomized field experiment with Pst-inoculated and Pst-free plots of winter wheat. The image classifier was trained with 224 × 224 px patches tiled from the original, unprocessed camera images. The image classifier was tested on different stages of the disease outbreak. At patch level the image classifier reached a total accuracy of 90%. To test the image classifier on image level, the image classifier was evaluated with a sliding window using a large striding length of 224 px allowing for fast test performance. At image level, the image classifier reached a total accuracy of 77%. Even in a stage with very low disease spreading (0.5%) at the very beginning of the Pst outbreak, a detection accuracy of 57% was obtained. Still in the initial phase of the Pst outbreak with 2 to 4% of Pst disease spreading, detection accuracy with 76% could be attained. With further optimizations, the image classifier could be implemented in embedded systems and deployed on drones, vehicles or scanning systems for fast mapping of Pst outbreaks.
- ItemEffects of Interrow Maintenance on Microclimate Parameters in Black Currant (Ribes nigrum L.)(Berlin ; Heidelberg [u.a.] : SpringerOpen, 2022) Nagler, Linda; Schwefler, Jana; Käthner, Jana; Giebel, Antje; Kramer, EckartThe aim of the study was to determine the influence of tramline maintenance frequency on air temperature and relative humidity in blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) plantations. In practice, keeping tramline vegetation short serves as an applied and preventative technique to improve aeration in the crop and reduce disease pressure. The on-farm trials took place on two ecological shrub berry farms in Brandenburg (Weggun and Schöneiche) over a period from March to June 2021. The effects of maintenance frequency on the microclimate in the tramlines were determined for normal mowing frequency (business as usual, BAU) and increased mowing frequency (TEST). The results show that continuous short keeping of the tramlines has a demonstrable influence on the air temperature and humidity in the currant stand. In some cases, an increased mowing frequency (TEST) led to a significantly higher mean air temperature than under usual management (BAU), whereas the mean relative humidity was significantly lower. The effects were dependent on timing and site. Over the experimental period, maximum mean air temperature differences of 1.14 °C (Weggun site) and 1.96 °C (Schöneiche site) and maximum mean relative humidity differences of 3.69% (Weggun site) and 3.90% (Schöneiche site) were observed between the TEST and BAU variants. Especially in the plantation with the smaller row distance, this effect occurs more clearly. The results suggest that the plantation structure has an influence on these effects, which should be investigated in further trials.
- ItemHyperspectral and chlorophyll fluorescence imaging to analyse the impact of Fusarium culmorum on the photosynthetic integrity of infected wheat ears(Basel : MDPI, 2011) Bauriegel, Elke; Giebel, Antje; Herppich, Werner B.Head blight on wheat, caused by Fusarium spp., is a serious problem for both farmers and food production due to the concomitant production of highly toxic mycotoxins in infected cereals. For selective mycotoxin analyses, information about the on-field status of infestation would be helpful. Early symptom detection directly on ears, together with the corresponding geographic position, would be important for selective harvesting. Hence, the capabilities of various digital imaging methods to detect head blight disease on winter wheat were tested. Time series of images of healthy and artificially Fusarium-infected ears were recorded with a laboratory hyperspectral imaging system (wavelength range: 400 nm to 1,000 nm). Disease-specific spectral signatures were evaluated with an imaging software. Applying the ‘Spectral Angle Mapper’ method, healthy and infected ear tissue could be clearly classified. Simultaneously, chlorophyll fluorescence imaging of healthy and infected ears, and visual rating of the severity of disease was performed. Between six and eleven days after artificial inoculation, photosynthetic efficiency of infected compared to healthy ears decreased. The severity of disease highly correlated with photosynthetic efficiency. Above an infection limit of 5% severity of disease, chlorophyll fluorescence imaging reliably recognised infected ears. With this technique, differentiation of the severity of disease was successful in steps of 10%. Depending on the quality of chosen regions of interests, hyperspectral imaging readily detects head blight 7 d after inoculation up to a severity of disease of 50%. After beginning of ripening, healthy and diseased ears were hardly distinguishable with the evaluated methods.
- ItemMonitoring Agronomic Parameters of Winter Wheat Crops with Low-Cost UAV Imagery(Basel : MDPI, 2016) Schirrmann, Michael; Giebel, Antje; Gleiniger, Franziska; Pflanz, Michael; Lentschke, Jan; Dammer, Karl-HeinzMonitoring the dynamics in wheat crops requires near-term observations with high spatial resolution due to the complex factors influencing wheat growth variability. We studied the prospects for monitoring the biophysical parameters and nitrogen status in wheat crops with low-cost imagery acquired from unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) over an 11 ha field. Flight missions were conducted at approximately 50 m in altitude with a commercial copter and camera system—three missions were performed between booting and maturing of the wheat plants and one mission after tillage. Ultra-high resolution orthoimages of 1.2 cm·px−1 and surface models were generated for each mission from the standard red, green and blue (RGB) aerial images. The image variables were extracted from image tone and surface models, e.g., RGB ratios, crop coverage and plant height. During each mission, 20 plots within the wheat canopy with 1 × 1 m2 sample support were selected in the field, and the leaf area index, plant height, fresh and dry biomass and nitrogen concentrations were measured. From the generated UAV imagery, we were able to follow the changes in early senescence at the individual plant level in the wheat crops. Changes in the pattern of the wheat canopy varied drastically from one mission to the next, which supported the need for instantaneous observations, as delivered by UAV imagery. The correlations between the biophysical parameters and image variables were highly significant during each mission, and the regression models calculated with the principal components of the image variables yielded R2 values between 0.70 and 0.97. In contrast, the models of the nitrogen concentrations yielded low R2 values with the best model obtained at flowering (R2 = 0.65). The nitrogen nutrition index was calculated with an accuracy of 0.10 to 0.11 NNI for each mission. For all models, information about the surface models and image tone was important. We conclude that low-cost RGB UAV imagery will strongly aid farmers in observing biophysical characteristics, but it is limited for observing the nitrogen status within wheat crops.
- ItemRegression kriging for improving crop height models fusing ultra-sonic sensing with UAV imagery(Basel : MDPI, 2017) Schirrmann, Michael; Hamdorf, André; Giebel, Antje; Gleiniger, Franziska; Pflanz, Michael; Dammer, Karl-HeinzA crop height model (CHM) can be an important element of the decision making process in agriculture, because it relates well with many agronomic parameters, e.g., crop height, plant biomass or crop yield. Today, CHMs can be inexpensively obtained from overlapping imagery captured from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) platforms or from proximal sensors attached to ground-based vehicles used for regular management. Both approaches have their limitations and combining them with a data fusion may overcome some of these limitations. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate if regression kriging, as a geostatistical data fusion approach, can be used to improve the interpolation of ground-based ultrasonic measurements with UAV imagery as covariate. Regression kriging might be suitable because we have a sparse data set (ultrasound) and an exhaustive data set (UAV) and both data sets have favorable properties for geostatistical analysis. To confirm this, we conducted four missions in two different fields in total, where we collected UAV imagery and ultrasonic data alongside. From the overlapping UAV images, surface models and ortho-images were generated with photogrammetric processing. The maps generated by regression kriging were of much higher detail than the smooth maps generated by ordinary kriging, because regression kriging ensures that for each prediction point information from the UAV, imagery is given. The relationship with crop height, fresh biomass and, to a lesser extent, with crop yield, was stronger using CHMs generated by regression kriging than by ordinary kriging. The use of UAV data from the prior mission was also of benefit and could improve map accuracy and quality. Thus, regression kriging is a flexible approach for the integration of UAV imagery with ground-based sensor data, with benefits for precision agriculture-oriented farmers and agricultural service providers.